What Are Meditation and Mindfulness?

Meditation is a practice with roots that stretch back thousands of years, particularly within Eastern traditions. Today, the term describes a wide range of techniques designed to connect the mind and body, promote mental clarity, and support overall well-being. Some forms of meditation involve concentrating on a single point of focus, such as breathing, a repeated word or phrase (mantra), a sound, or a visual image. Other approaches emphasize mindfulness, which involves paying attention to the present moment with openness and without judgment.

Structured programs often combine meditation or mindfulness with additional strategies. For example, mindfulness-based stress reduction teaches formal meditation practices along with group discussions and practical tools for handling stress. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy blends mindfulness exercises with elements of cognitive behavioral therapy to help people change unhelpful thought patterns.

Are Meditation and Mindfulness Practices Safe?

Meditation and mindfulness are generally considered low-risk practices. However, research specifically examining possible adverse effects is limited, which makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions about safety.

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A 2020 review of 83 studies involving 6,703 participants found that 55 studies reported some negative experiences linked to meditation. Researchers estimated that about 8 percent of participants experienced unwanted effects, a rate similar to that seen in psychological therapies. Anxiety and depression were the most frequently reported issues. In a closer look at three studies of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs (521 participants), researchers found that these programs were no more harmful than receiving no treatment.

How Popular Are Meditation and Mindfulness?

National survey data show that meditation has become increasingly popular in the United States. The percentage of adults who reported practicing meditation rose from 7.5 percent in 2002 to 17.3 percent in 2022. Among complementary health approaches surveyed in 2022, meditation ranked as the most commonly used, ahead of yoga, chiropractic care, massage therapy, guided imagery or progressive muscle relaxation, acupuncture, and naturopathy.

For children ages 4 to 17, available data from 2017 indicate that 5.4 percent had practiced meditation that year.

Why Do People Practice Mindfulness Meditation?

In a 2012 national survey of 34,525 adults, 1.9 percent reported practicing mindfulness meditation in the previous year. Among those who practiced only mindfulness meditation, 73 percent said they did so to support general wellness or prevent illness. About 92 percent reported meditating to relax or manage stress. More than half also cited improving sleep as a motivation.

What Are the Health Benefits of Meditation and Mindfulness?

Research suggests that meditation and mindfulness may offer various health benefits and enhance quality of life. Studies have explored their potential role in managing anxiety, stress, depression, pain, and symptoms related to substance withdrawal. Other research has examined their influence on sleep and weight management.

However, much of the existing research is preliminary or limited in quality. Because studies often evaluate different types of practices and use varied measurement tools, findings can be difficult to interpret and may sometimes be overstated.

Stress, Anxiety, and Depression

• A 2018 analysis of 142 participant groups with diagnosed psychiatric conditions (over 12,000 individuals) found that mindfulness-based approaches were more effective than no treatment and performed comparably to established therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy and antidepressant medications.

• A 2021 review of 23 studies involving 1,815 adults with anxiety disorders reported mixed short-term results. Mindfulness-based practices were generally more effective than standard treatments in reducing anxiety and depression symptoms, though only certain approaches matched cognitive behavioral therapy. Long-term benefits beyond two months were not clearly demonstrated, and study bias was a concern.

• A 2019 review of 23 studies involving 1,373 college students found that yoga, mindfulness, and meditation showed some benefit for stress, anxiety, and depression. However, most studies were of low quality and carried a high risk of bias.

High Blood Pressure

High-quality research on meditation’s impact on blood pressure is limited. A 2017 scientific statement suggested meditation might offer some cardiovascular benefit, though its precise effects on blood pressure remain uncertain.

• A 2020 review of 14 studies involving more than 1,100 participants with conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, or cancer found that mindfulness-based stress reduction was associated with meaningful reductions in blood pressure.

Pain

Findings on meditation and pain relief are mixed and depend on the type of pain studied.

• A 2020 federal review concluded that mindfulness-based stress reduction improved low-back pain in the short term but did not significantly affect fibromyalgia pain.

• A 2020 analysis of five studies (514 participants) found a strong association between meditation and reduced pain among adults using opioids for acute or chronic pain.

• A 2020 review of 19 studies on acute pain found no clear reduction in pain intensity, though some evidence suggested improved pain tolerance.

• A 2017 review of 30 studies (2,561 participants) indicated mindfulness meditation reduced chronic pain more effectively than several other treatments, although study quality was generally low.

• A 2019 comparison of psychological treatments for chronic pain found both cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction were more effective than no treatment, with no meaningful difference between them.

• A 2019 review of five small studies found no clear reduction in headache frequency or intensity with mindfulness-based approaches, though conclusions were considered preliminary.

Insomnia and Sleep Quality

Mindfulness meditation may help improve sleep.

• A 2019 review of 18 studies (1,654 participants) found mindfulness meditation improved sleep quality more than educational programs. However, its effects were similar to established treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy and exercise.

Substance Use Disorder

Mindfulness-based interventions, including mindfulness-based relapse prevention, aim to help individuals recognize triggers and respond to cravings more skillfully.

• A 2018 review of 37 studies (3,531 participants) found mindfulness-based approaches significantly reduced cravings and were slightly more effective than other treatments in promoting abstinence.

• A 2017 review of nine studies (901 participants) concluded that mindfulness-based relapse prevention was not more effective than other established treatments in preventing relapse, though it modestly reduced cravings and alcohol withdrawal symptoms.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Evidence suggests mindfulness and meditation may help reduce PTSD symptoms.

• A 2018 review of eight studies involving veterans, nurses, and survivors of interpersonal violence found that most participants experienced symptom reduction after mindfulness-based treatment.

• A 2018 clinical trial of 203 veterans found meditation was as effective as prolonged exposure therapy in reducing PTSD and depression symptoms and more effective than health education. Participants also reported improved mood and quality of life.

Cancer

• A 2019 review of 29 studies (3,274 participants) found mindfulness-based programs reduced psychological distress, fatigue, sleep problems, pain, and symptoms of anxiety and depression among people with cancer. Most participants were women with breast cancer, so findings may not apply to all cancer populations.

Weight Control and Eating Behavior

Mindfulness-based programs may support healthier eating behaviors.

• A 2017 review of 15 studies (560 participants) found mindfulness practices were effective for managing eating behaviors and emotional distress but less effective for weight loss itself.

• A 2018 review of 19 studies (1,160 participants) reported that structured mindfulness programs combining meditation with informal exercises were particularly helpful for weight loss and reducing binge and emotional eating.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Studies examining meditation and mindfulness for ADHD have produced mixed results. Because many studies are small or of limited quality, evidence remains inconclusive.

How Do Meditation and Mindfulness Work?

Some research indicates that meditation and mindfulness may influence brain function or structure. Brain imaging studies have identified measurable differences in individuals who practice mindfulness-based techniques. While these findings are promising, their practical significance and long-term implications are not yet fully understood.

NCCIH-Funded Research

Current research efforts include:

• Studying how the brain responds to mindfulness meditation used alongside migraine treatment.

• Evaluating mindfulness therapy combined with medication for opioid use disorder.

• Testing mindfulness training programs designed to help law enforcement officers manage stress and strengthen resilience.

Tips To Consider

• Do not use meditation or mindfulness as a substitute for conventional medical care or delay seeking professional advice for a health condition.

• Ask about the qualifications and experience of any meditation or mindfulness instructor you are considering.

• Discuss complementary approaches with your health care providers so you can make informed, coordinated decisions about your care.

For More Information

NCCIH Clearinghouse

The NCCIH Clearinghouse offers information about complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of scientific literature. It does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals.

Know the Science

Educational resources are available to help consumers understand scientific research and interpret health information, including explanations of research methods and clinical studies.

PubMed

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NIH Clinical Research Trials and You

This resource explains the purpose of clinical trials, how they work, and how individuals can participate. Clinical trials are essential for developing improved methods to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases.

Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools (RePORTER)

RePORTER is a searchable database of federally funded scientific research projects conducted at research institutions.

Key References

A selection of systematic reviews and meta-analyses examining mindfulness, meditation, and related health outcomes informs this summary.

Other References

Additional peer-reviewed studies and reports provide further context on meditation, mindfulness-based interventions, and their applications in health care and education.

Acknowledgments

This content was reviewed by experts in complementary and integrative health research. It is provided for informational purposes and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Always consult your health care provider regarding decisions about treatment or care. Mention of specific therapies or services does not constitute endorsement.